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Journal Issue: Domestic Violence and Children Volume 9 Number 3 Winter 1999

The Impact of Federal and State Laws on Children Exposed to Domestic Violence
Authors: Martha A. Matthews

Endnotes

  1. Davidson, H. The impact of domestic violence on children: A report to the president of the American Bar Association. Washington, DC: American Bar Association, 1994.
  2. Federal and state criminal laws concerning domestic violence also have indirect effects on children, but are beyond the scope of this article.
  3. Lyon, E. Poverty, welfare and battered women: What does the research tell us? Harrisburg, PA: National Resource Center on Domestic Violence, December 1997. This is an unpublished document available from the Center at (800) 537-2238.
  4. See 42 U.S.C. §§ 10401 et seq. (1992).
  5. See 42 U.S.C. §§ 10402 (1996); 10407, 10410 (1994); 10414 (1992); 10416-10418 (1994).
  6. Violence Against Women Act of 1994 (VAWA). Public Law 103-322, 108 Stat. 1796 (1994).
  7. Schmidt Am Busch, B. Domestic violence and Title III of the Violence Against Women Act of 1993: A feminist critique. Hastings Women's Law Journal (1995) 6:1-26.
  8. See note no. 7, Schmidt Am Busch, p. 7.
  9. See, for example, Brzonkala v. Virginia Polytechnic Institute, 169 F.3d 820 (4th Cir. 1999); U.S. v. Gluzman, 154 F.3d 49 (2d Cir. 1998); Doe v. Doe, 929 F.Supp. 608 (D.Conn. 1996).
  10. Fulcher, J. Violence Against Women Act of 1994 reauthorization needs. New York: NOW Legal Defense Fund, March 26, 1998.
  11. See 42 U.S.C. §§ 10410, 10417 (1994).
  12. Similar provisions have been introduced in the Senate, as the Violence Against Women Act II, S. 51, and the Battered Women's Economic Security Act, S. 1069.
  13. See NOW Legal Defense and Education Fund. Policy watch. Violence Against Women Act of 1999. Available online at http://www.nowldef.org/html/policy/flindex.htm.
  14. For more information about VAWA '99, see the NOW Legal Defense and Education Fund Web site at http://www.nowldef.org or contact their Washington, DC, office at (202) 544-4470.
  15. Domestic Violence Prevention Act, Cal. Fam. Code §§ 6200 et seq. (1993).
  16. See, for example, Cal. Fam. Code § 6323 (1997); N.D. Cen. Code § 14-07.1-02 (1997); and Tenn. Code Ann. § 36-3-606 (1997).
  17. Harrell, A., Smith, B., and Newmark, L. Court processing and the effects of restraining orders for domestic violence victims. Washington, DC: Urban Institute, May 1993.
  18. See, for example, Alaska Stat. § 18.66.150 (1996), Ariz. Rev. Stat. § 13-3602 (1998), Fla. Stat. Ann. § 741.30 (1998), and Ga. Code Ann. § 19-13-2 (1997). For a review of trends in state legislation implementing VAWA, see the National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges. Family violence legislative guide. Reno, NV: NCJFCJ, 1996, 1997, 1998, and 1999.
  19. These states include: Louisiana (La. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 2136.1 [1997]), Nevada (Nev. Rev. Stat. Ch. 33.050 [1997]), and Texas (Tex. Fam. Code Ann. § 81.002 [1997]).
  20. See, for example, Okla. Stat. Tit. 12, § 921.1 (1998); and Va. Code Ann. § 16.1-266.2 (1995).
  21. See note no. 1, Davidson, pp. 9-10.
  22. See note no. 17, Harrell, Smith, and Newmark, p. 80.
  23. See Hardcastle, G.W. Joint custody: A family court judge's perspective. Family Law Quarterly (1998) 32:201-19, for a critique of statutes that mandate or encourage joint custody.
  24. See Fineman, M.A. The neutered mother. University of Miami Law Review (1992) 46:653-69, for a discussion of the influence of the fathers' rights movement on child custody laws.
  25. National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges. Family violence in child custody statutes: An analysis of state codes and legal practice. Family Law Quarterly (1995) 29:197-225; see also Mahoney, M.R. Legal images of battered women: Redefining the issue of separation. Michigan Law Review (1990) 90:1-94.
  26. Hart, B.J. Family violence and custody codes. Juvenile and Family Court Journal (1992) 43:29-36.
  27. Cahn, N.R. Civil images of battered women: The impact of domestic violence on child custody decisions. Vanderbilt Law Review (1991) 44:1041-77.
  28. Enos, V.P. Recent development: Prosecuting battered mothers: State laws' failure to protect battered women and abused children. Harvard Women's Law Journal (1996) 19:229-68.
  29. See note no. 1, Davidson, p. 13.
  30. See, for example, Haw. Rev. Stat. § 571-46 (1996); La. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 9:364A (1995); Mass. Gen. Laws Ann. ch. 208 § 31A, ch. 209 § 38 (1998); and 23 Pa. Cons. Stat. Ann. § 5303 (1998).
  31. See Cal. Fam. Code § 3020 (1997), Ga. Code Ann. § 19-9-7 (1995), Haw. Rev. Stat. § 571-46 (1996), Iowa Code Ann. § 598.41 (1997), and N.C. Gen. Stat. § 50-13.2 (1995).
  32. See note no. 25, National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges, p. 202.
  33. Developments in the law: Legal responses to domestic violence. Battered women and child custody decision making. Harvard Law Review (1993) 106:1597-1620.
  34. See, for example, Iowa Code Ann. § 598.41 (1997) and Tex. Fam. Code Ann. § 153.131 (1997).
  35. Uniform Child Custody Jurisdiction Act, 9-1 U.L.A. 115 (1988). Some examples of state laws enacting the UCCJA are: Ala. Code §§ 30-3-20 et seq. (1980); Haw. Rev. Stat. Ann. §§ 583-1 et seq. (1993); and Wis. Stat. Ann. §§ 822.01 et seq. (1979).
  36. See, for example, Cal. Penal Code § 278.7 (1996), which allows abused parents to protect themselves from kidnapping charges by calling the district attorney's office and stating that they have fled with a child to escape domestic violence.
  37. See note no. 26, Hart, pp. 31-32 and nn. 252-54.
  38. See, for example, Cal. Civ. Code § 4608(b) (1990); Mich. Comp. Laws Ann. § 722.27(a) (1990); La. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 9:364(C) (1995); Mass. Gen. Laws Ann. ch. 208 § 31A, ch. 209 § 38 (1998); and W. Va. Code § 48-2A-7 (1998).
  39. Mo. Rev. Stat. § 455.050.6 (1995).
  40. See note no. 28, Enos, p. 252.
  41. See note no. 33, Developments in the law, p. 1616 and n. 146.
  42. See note no. 1, Davidson, p. 14.
  43. See note no. 18, National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges, p. 47 (describing Kansas law).
  44. See note no. 33, Developments in the law, pp. 1602-1603.
  45. See, for example, Ala. Code § 6-6-20 (1996), Fla. Stat. Ann. § 44.102 (1997), Haw. Rev. Stat. § 580-41.5 (1996), and Iowa Code Ann. § 598.7A (1996).
  46. Aron, L., and Olson, K. Efforts by child welfare agencies to address domestic violence: The experiences of five communities. Washington, DC: Urban Institute, March 1997.
  47. 42 U.S.C. §§ 5101 et seq. (1996).
  48. Adoption Assistance and Child Welfare Act. Public Law 96-272, 94 Stat. 500 (June 17, 1980) codified at 42 U.S.C. §§ 602, 608, 612 (1997); 620 (1989); 622 (1997); 628 (1996); 652, 655, 658 (1998); 670 et seq. (1996).
  49. 42 U.S.C. § 5106a(b) (2) (A) (i)-(ii) (1996).
  50. 42 U.S.C. § 671(a) (15) (1998). See also Shotton, A.C. Making reasonable efforts in child abuse and neglect cases: Ten years later. California Western Law Review (1989-90) 26:223-56.
  51. 42 U.S.C. §§ 629, 629a-e (1993).
  52. Adoption and Safe Families Act of 1997. Public Law 105-89, 111 Stat. 2115. Most provisions relevant to the following discussion are codified at 42 U.S.C. §§ 603, 613, 622, 629-29B, 653, 670-75, 677-78, 679B (1997); see also Grimm, W. Adoption and Safe Families Act brings big changes in child welfare. Youth Law News (November/December 1997) 18:6-10.
  53. 42 U.S.C. §§ 671(a) (15) (A), 678 (1998).
  54. 42 U.S.C. § 671(a) (15) (D) (1998).
  55. 42 U.S.C. § 671(a) (15) (E) (1998).
  56. 42 U.S.C. §§ 629(a), 629A(a) (1)-(2) (1997); 629B(a) (4)-(5) (1998).
  57. 42 U.S.C. § 673(b) (1998).
  58. Hays, K. Foster children benefit from accelerated system. Chicago Tribune. March 5, 1998, at 8.
  59. See note no. 52, Grimm, pp. 4-5.
  60. Murphy, J.C. Legal images of motherhood: Conflicting definitions from welfare "reform," family, and criminal law. Cornell Law Review (1998) 83:688-766.
  61. Becker, M.E. Double binds facing mothers in abusive families: Social support systems, custody outcomes, and liability for acts of others. University of Chicago Law School Roundtable (1995) 2:13-33.
  62. See note no. 60, Murphy, p. 729.
  63. See note no. 60, Murphy, p. 720.
  64. See note no. 28, Enos, pp. 229-30.
  65. Hollander, N. 'Bad' mothers: Modern day witches. The Champion (July 1993) 17:3.
  66. See note no. 60, Murphy, p. 720.
  67. See note no. 1, Davidson, p. 17; see also Howell, S. How will battered women fare under the new welfare reform? Berkeley Women's Law Journal (1997) 12:140-50.
  68. Cal. Welf. & Inst. Code § 332 (1998). See also Alaska Stat. § 47.17.035 (1998), which requires the state child welfare agency to make efforts to protect the child and prevent separation of the child from the battered parent, and to remove the batterer from the home, and Utah Code Ann. § 62A-4a-105 (1998), which adds protecting victims of domestic violence and their children to the responsibilities of the state child welfare agency.
  69. See, for example, Alaska Stat. § 47.17.035 (1998), Ind. Code § 5-2-9-2.1 (1998), and S.D. Codified Laws § 26-7A-107 (1996).
  70. See, for example, a 1995 Georgia law that forbids courts from construing a parent's domestic violence related absence from the home as abandonment of a child. Amending Ga. Code Ann. §§ 19-9-1, 19-9-3 (1995).
  71. See note no. 46, Aron and Olson.
  72. See note no. 3, Lyon.
  73. Raphael, J. Prisoners of abuse: Policy implications of the relationship between domestic violence and welfare receipt. Clearinghouse Review (Special Issue 1996) 30:186-94; Raphael, J., and Tolman, R. Trapped by poverty, trapped by abuse: New evidence documenting the relationship between domestic violence and welfare. Chicago: Taylor Institute, April 1997; Kenney, C., and Brown, K. Report from the front lines: The impact of violence on poor women. New York: NOW Legal Defense and Education Fund, 1996.
  74. See note no. 73, Kenney and Brown, pp. 17-20; see also Shepard, M., and Pence, E. The effect of battering on the employment status of women. Affilia (Summer 1988) 3:55.
  75. Bassuk, E., Browne, A., and Buckner, J. Single mothers and welfare. Scientific American (October 1996) 275:60-74; see also note no. 73, Raphael and Tolman, p. 26.
  76. Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996. Public Law 104-193, 110 Stat. 2105 (August 22, 1996). Most of the TANF provisions are codified at 42 U.S.C. §§ 601 et seq., 628b, 653a, 654b, 659 (1997); 659a, 710 (1996).
  77. See note no. 67, Howell, pp. 145-49.
  78. See note no. 73, Raphael and Tolman, p. 25.
  79. 42 U.S.C. § 602 (1997).
  80. 69 Fed. Reg. 17720 (April 12, 1999).
  81. Raphael, J., and Haennicke, S. Keeping battered women safe through the welfare-to-work journey: How are we doing? Chicago: Taylor Institute, September 1999, pp. 6-8.
  82. See note no. 81, Raphael and Haennicke, p. 8. The three states are Illinois, South Carolina, and Wisconsin. Wisconsin and Illinois do allow welfare recipients to obtain domestic violence services as a work activity, but have no specific policies for domestic violence victims. South Carolina is in the process of developing domestic violence policies.
  83. See note no. 81, Raphael and Haennicke, pp. 19-23.
  84. NOW Legal Defense and Education Fund. Policy watch. The Family Violence Option: Is your state taking advantage of it? Available online at http://www.nowldef.org/html/policy/fvosur.htm.
  85. 42 U.S.C. § 654(29) (A) (1997).
  86. Pearson, J., and Griswold, E.A. Child support policies and domestic violence. Public Welfare (Winter 1997) 55:26-33.
  87. See note no. 86, Pearson and Griswold, p. 32; Raphael, J., and Haennicke, S. The Family Violence Option: An early assessment. Chicago: Taylor Institute, September 1998, pp. 17-22; Turetsky, V. Implementing the Family Violence Option: Lessons from child support "good cause" policies. Washington, DC: Center for Law and Social Policy, November 1997.
  88. See note no. 87, Raphael and Haennicke, pp. 17, 21; see also Even, J.T. Washington's address confidentiality program: Relocation assistance for victims of domestic violence. Gonzaga Law Review (1995-96) 31:523-48.
  89. Pollack, W., and Davis, M.F. The Family Violence Option of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996: Interpretation and implementation. Clearinghouse Review (March/April 1997) 30:1079-1100.
  90. 8 U.S.C. § 1154 (1996).
  91. 8 U.S.C. § 1154(a) (1) (1996).
  92. Wheeler, C. New protections for immigrant women and children who are victims of domestic violence. Clearinghouse Review (Special Issue 1996) 30:222-29; see also Loke, T. Trapped in domestic violence: The impact of United States immigration laws on battered immigrant women. Boston University Public Interest Law Journal (1997) 6:589-628.
  93. 8 U.S.C. § 1154(a) (1) (C) (iii) (I)-(II) (1996).
  94. 8 U.S.C. § 1154(a) (1) (C) (iii) (1996).
  95. The Agricultural Research, Extension and Education Reform Act of 1998, Public Law 105-185, 112 Stats. 523, restored eligibility for food stamps to about 30% of the legal immigrants who lost food stamps in 1996. Currently pending legislation, the Fairness for Legal Act, S. 792, H.R. 1399, would further restore food stamp and Medicaid eligibility to legal immigrants, and also includes provisions that would permit otherwise ineligible domestic violence victims to qualify for benefits if necessary to help them escape violence.
  96. Jang, D.L. Caught in a web: Immigrant women and domestic violence. Clearinghouse Review (1994) 28:397-405.
  97. There are a large number of families with "mixed" immigration status. Nearly 10 million U.S. families include at least one citizen child and at least one immigrant parent. See Brady, S.A. Protecting children of immigrants is harder under new welfare, immigration laws. Youth Law News (March/April 1998) 19:6-11.
  98. IIRIRA, 8 U.S.C. § 1229b (b) (2) (1997).
  99. 8 U.S.C. § 1182(a) (4) (1997).
  100. Orloff, L. Access to public benefits for battered immigrant women and children. Clearinghouse Review (September/October 1999) 33:237-56.