Many experienced instructors consider leading small-group discussion
more difficult and more challenging than lecturing to a room of
two hundred. The lecturer has significant control about what happens
in the classroom, while the discussion leader shares control and
direction with the students. The best-laid plans must yield to
the never wholly predictable factors of the students' enthusiasm,
their preparedness, and the general dynamics of the group.
Discussion Models: Focused and Open
Discussion sessions may be roughly divided into two categories--focused
and open. Discussion sections in the natural sciences and engineering
often work best when the instructor keeps them focused and structured.
Tighter structure allows the instructor to cover larger amounts
of material, to separate the major from the minor concepts, and
to place more emphasis on review, clarification and elaboration
of the lecture and course readings. In courses in the social sciences
and humanities, where there is seldom one correct answer or approach,
a less structured and less directed discussion format usually
works best. Most often discussion sections in any field of study
will require some combination of both techniques.
On Preparing
It is the night before the new instructor's first
discussion class. She has looked through the reading assignment
one last time, has outlined the central points to be covered in
class, and has checked some (if only there were more time!) of
the relevant secondary materials. She is better prepared than
she ever was for any class as a student. She is tired, but
as she prepares to turn in for the night, she mulls over the last
detail. "What questions should I ask so that we will cover
the material in the most interesting and educational manner?"
Suddenly she realizes she is stumped. What if the students don't
respond to her questions? What if there is just silence?
Every discussion has a life of its own; the best
lesson plan in the world will not be of much use if the class
is prepared and eager to take the discussion in a different direction.
The best preparation for your next class may therefore take place
in the preceding class or classes. Consider passing out discussion
questions to your students one week in advance, giving them time
to think about the important aspects of the readings or lecture
-- you will find they will come into your section better prepared.
Ask them to bring their own questions into class, and then begin
the next class with students writing their questions on the board.
Some Ads have found that making one or two students the "authority"
on some section or aspect of the material that week will help
to bring students into the discussion.
From Leading to Facilitating: What is Your Role?
Perhaps the most important general question the discussion
leader faces is whether his/her role is to direct closely or to
mediate loosely the students' contributions in class. Will you
try to steer students toward certain agendas or answers? Or will
you act more as facilitator, stepping back to let the class set
or select goals at the outset, and encouraging them to arrive
at their own conclusions in their own ways? Obviously, there is
no simple answer. The following was expressed by a preceptor in
English:
As a preceptor, you should talk as little as possible.
You are somewhat similar to the referee in basketball, although
you may at times be compelled to participate in the play. You
should always keep the ball within the bounds prescribed by the
reading and lecture material, and you should do everything possible
by short verbal directional thrusts to keep the game moving and
to obtain full coverage. Sometimes, however, the score becomes
too one-sided, or the action tends to concentrate in one end
of the court. Then the preceptor should jump in to rectify.
Remember that as a discussion leader, your role is
very different from that of the lecturer. You can assist, clarify,
and help demonstrate the major points expressed by the lecturer
and through the readings, but your goal is to lead your students
intoJ;ee discussion, foster understanding and stimulate intellectual
growth. To accomplish these tasks, consider the following:
- Stress the separation of major points
from minor ones. Concentrate only on those parts of students'
comments which relate to the agenda you have established. Let
the students know why you are responding selectively to their
remarks, and assure them that you are available to discuss other
issues during office hours.
- Ask more divergent than convergent questions.
That is, try to steer the students toward inquiries for which
a number of answers are equally valid, rather than toward those
for which there is one correct answer.
- Encourage students to hold discussions
with each other, instead of expecting the ultimate response or
final word to come from you. A thoughtful debate is more enriching
than collective agreement.
- Instead of your frequently summarizing
the discussion along the way, ask one or two students what they
think were the most important points made at each stage of the discussion.
- Listen to what your students are saying.
Consider jotting down notes while
a student is talking, and refer back to these comments during
the discussion or at a later point in the term. Your students
will respond better to you and the class when they feel you listening
to what they are saying.
- Just before the end of the class, summarize
the main points of the discussion, or ask one or two students
to summarize them for you. Also, talk about your next meeting,
including issues that may be discussed. At this point, you may
want to ask students to bring in questions of their own.
The Art of Questioning
Good questions are the backbone of effective group
discussion, but it will take time for you to learn how to ask
the questions that will elicit interesting responses. The most
productive questions provide openings to a variety of responses,
and invite students to think about and respond at a high level
to the material. Alternate between posing some questions to the
entire class and addressing others to individual students.
Remember too that you need to give your students enough time to
respond. Don't give the answer yourself or change the subject
by asking another question. In fielding questions, make sure you
listen closely. If a student's question is vague, ask him/her
to clarify the communication. Don't do the work for them! When
students ask you questions, ask other students to respond. Do
whatever it takes to stimulate a group discussion.
Here are some of the most common types of questions.
The Playground Question
The Focal Question
The Brainstorm Question
The Playground Question -- Here the instructor designates
a carefully chosen aspect of the material for intensive study
(the "playground"). This kind of questioning encourages
the students to choose freely their own concepts or themes in
dealing with the material.
Examples:
"Let's see if we can generalize
about the play as a whole from the nature of the opening lines.
"
(Instructor reads a sentence from the novel under study.)
"Well, that's a very rich sentence. . .there's a lot there.
. .OK, what's there?"
The Focal Question -- Students are asked to choose from
among a limited number of positions or viewpoints, and to support
their views in discussion. They are thus more guided conceptually
than by the Playground Question, but less restricted in the material
they may bring in to substantiate their positions.
Examples:
So where is this wild boy better off? In the forest
where he started, or in civilization being socialized?"
"Is Ivan Illych a victim of his society, or did he
create his problems by his own choices?"
The Brainstorm Question -- Here the structure is thematic:
the title is derived from the brainstorming technique, which encourages
participants to generate a large number of ideas on a single topic
in a short space of time. The question should deliberately encourage
all kinds of ideas or opinions, while the theme delimits the range
of what is appropriate.
Examples:
"What possibilities are there for refuge in A
Farewell to Arms?"
"What kinds of things is Hamlet questioning, not
just in his soliloquies, but broadly throughout the whole play?"
The kinds of questions discussed above are likely to stimulate
good discussion. The following types, by contrast, are usually
not productive:
The General Invitation
The Shotgun Question
The Analytic Convergent Question
The Quiz Show Question
The General Invitation -- This is a Playground Question
that has lost its boundaries. It encourages a wide range of response,
but the arena of discussion is so broad and vague that there
is insufficient direction. Students are likely to get confused
or keep quiet because they aren't sure what is "really"
being asked.
Examples:
"What about the lecture?"
"Any comments on Plato?"
The Shotgun Question -- These are really multiple questions
which pack in several weakly related sub-questions all in one
breath or ask for radically different kinds of thinking. They
often seem to be fired off in the hope that one fragment will
hit something. Unfortunately, the confusion which results is usually
inhibiting to students. In many cases the individual questions
which make up the Shotgun Question would be valuable if the instructor
would simply wait between questions
instead of throwing them out all at once.
Examples:
"So, we're talking about the fact that everybody's
roles are changing, we've mentioned religion and education, how
did religion and education during this period affect these changes,
or how did the changes affect the kind of religion and education
people had?...Let's start with religion...have women always had
a divine place in religion?
"How do you interpret what the narrator tells you
about the hero? What do you make of his return from law school?
Why did he decide he didn't really expect too much?"
The Analytic Convergent Question -- These questions can
elicit complex, analytical thought, but tend or seem to aim at
a single correct answer. Discussion is likely to be short lived
because students sense a "right or wrong" atmosphere,
or because active thinking will stop when one answer is labeled
as correct by the instructor.
Examples:
"So in this story, when (is) the point of truth for
Kurtz?"
"What was the most important reason for the revolution's
failure?"
The Quiz Show Question -- While questions of this type
produce excitement on daytime television, they may well create
an impoverished intellectual atmosphere because they are factoriented,
single-answer, convergent questions which, not surprisingly, produce
the least discussion of all.
Examples:
"What was the name of the institution?"
"He talks about envying one character. Who was it?"
Dealing with ''Difficult'' Students
You can probably recall from your own undergraduate experience
one or two students who tried to monopolize classroom discussion,
or the student who tried to intimidate the professor by challenging
his/her authority, or who refused to take part in class discussion,
either because of unpreparedness or plain shyness. Perhaps
you were one of these students yourself. Now that you are the
instructor you must be prepared to deal constructively with these
students in order to keep your class on track.
- How do you control the overly talkative student?
- How do you draw out the shy student?
- What about the lazy student?
- How do you respond to the student who keeps challenging you?
- A Class for All the People
How do you control the overly talkative student, including
the one who tries to capture the sole attention of the preceptor?
You will need to make it clear to the overly talkative one(s)
that the floor belongs to everyone. Thank the talkative student
for his comments, but then divert the conversation to other members
of the class, calling on specific students by name if need be.
Ask other members of the class to answer his question. If the
student still does not take the hint, talk to him privately. Explain
your position clearly: although the student's comments in class
are valid and welcome, he must allow others to participate as
well. Also stress the fact that listening to other students is
an important feature of the discussion format. Because overly
talkative students may often be insecure, you want to avoid personally
attacking them; tactfully point out the situation and work together
toward a solution.
How do you draw out the shy student?
Clearly shy students need extra encouragement to participate in
class. If you encounter such students, try to bring them into
class discussion by asking questions (easier ones at first to
help boost confidence). Encourage students to relate classroom
discussions to their own experiences. Also, students will feel
more connected to you and the class if you try to make eye contact
with them. If you still do not make any headway, talk to the student
privately. Explain why class participation is an integral
part of the course and that it will count in your final evaluation.
Ask if there are reasons why the student does not participate.
If there are, you might be able to help by discussing the problem,
or you might suggest a range of other resources such as tutoring
sessions or an appointment with a Dean or a Director of Studies
and, if you are certain that it is appropriate, the University
counseling service.
What about the lazy student?
Allstudents must be held to the standards
of the class. If a student does not meet these standards -- i.e.,
arrives at class late, misses classes without an excuse, fails
to do the reading and written assignments -- you must meet with
that student as soon as possible. If the student needs additional
help with the material, suggest a tutor, or invite the student
to meet with you during your office hours for extra help. Let
the student know that her unpreparedness for class affects the
entire class since time is taken away from the prepared students
by discussing material that has already been covered in the past.
The student's courseload may be too heavy during the current term,
in which case the student should take the matter up with a faculty
advisor, Director of Studies, or Dean.
How do you respond to the student who keeps challenging you?
If a student is in the habit of disrupting your class by arguing
irrelevant points, or challenging everything you say to try to
boost his ego, you should talk to the student out of the class
during office hours. Be frank. Point out examples of the disruptive
style, and try to agree on a solution that you can both live with.
The student may not agree with the general approach of the
course (which is okay) but needs to understand that the approach
of the course is not likely to change, and that the student should
consider adjusting his/her expectations in order to derive some
benefit from the course. If a student asks a question in class
to which you do not have an answer, don't be afraid to say so
and that you will need time to find the answer. If someone asks
an irrelevant question that requires a lengthy explanation, suggest
some resources which the student could use to find the answer,
or suggest a meeting with you during your office hours. Be firm,
but not confrontational.
All of the problem situations above need to be dealt
with as quickly as possible so that one or two problem students
do not create a problem class, precept, or lab for you. Do not
make the mistake of avoiding them in hopes that they will correct
themselves. At times you may want to talk to the course head directly
about a problem student. The professor may want to meet with the
student personally, or talk to the student's advisor, Director
of Studies, or Dean of the College. Keep in mind, however, that
sometimes you may be waging a losing battle, and after exhausting
all attempts to change your teaching strategies, or the student's
behavior, you may be forced to concede that the situation is out
of your control. Do not despair. In most cases, your efforts will
pay off, and you will find that your class as a whole will function
better.
A Class For All the People
Your students bear at least half the burden for making
the class productive and interesting, and each student should
be held responsible for the conduct and content of discussions.
As their teacher, however, you should try to create a climate
of equal opportunity for participation.
Your teaching style and class management should show your students
that rudeness, interruptions, and ignoring or dismissing other
students' contributions will not be acceptable. On a broader level,
it is true in American class rooms generally that men tend to
dominate, or try to dominate discussion, and that teachers unconsciously
direct their questions -- and their approval toward men discussants.
You can create a better climate for discussion by asking all
your students the same kinds of questions and spreading
your attention, responsiveness and approval around to all members
of the class -- men and women, majority and minority students.
Certainly avoid speaking or presenting material as if no women
or persons of color or international students are present. And
even if by chance none are, this should not prevent you from bringing
in important perspectives or materials related to gender, or ethnicity,
or other cultures. In these ways you can demonstrate that your
class is for all the students.