Part I
GENDER EQUITY IN THE CLASSROOM

What are the teacher behaviors that discourage women's participation and, ultimately, may undermine their selfconfidence and educational and career aspirations? How can an instructor encourage women to participate more actively in class? The following two lists -- based on studies of classroom interaction and the differences between men's and women's styles of speaking - can help instructors identify behaviors quickly and suggest some specific remedies for them. Many of the techniques will also work with students of color or others who may not be participating.

BEHAVIORS WHICH DlSCOURAGE WOMEN FROM PARTICIPATING IN CLASS

1. When you address the class or ask a question, look primarily at men, as if they are the ones you expect to respond.
2. Call men by their last names, women by their first.
3. Respond to women's comments with negative body language, such as avoiding eye contact, looking out the window, or shuffling papers.
4. Ignore male students when they interrupt women students, squeeze out women students during a lab demonstration, or show hostility by commenting loudly or negatively when women speak about women's issues.
5. Judge the content of what women are saying by how they say it. If a woman speaks hesitantly or apologizes ("Maybe I'm wrong, but...") assume that she is not too bright.
6. Respond to women's comments with an "uh-huh," or "okay" but offer precise, substantive responses when men speak.
7. Use examples that exclude women as participants ("When we were boys, we did this...").
8. Tell sexual jokes; joke about male chauvinism.
   
9. Call on minority women primarily to express a minority point of view, implying that they have no individual point of view.
10. Make seemingly "helpful" comments that disparage women's abilities, such as: "I know women usually have trouble with numbers, but I'll give you some extra help"

Part II

STRATEGIES FOR ENCOURAGING CLASS PARTICIPATION

1. On the first day, tell the class that you expect all students to participate equally, not on a daily basis but over the course of the semester. Say that you will be calling on students and then ask students who are uncomfortable with this to come see you after class. Tell them you will work with them on their contributions to the class. One way to help a student who comes to you is to share some of the questions you will use in class.
2. Call all students by name, and refer to students' contributions by name.
3. Call on all students directly, even if they don't raise their hands.
4. Call on all students equally.
5. Move around the classroom. Talk across the room to a group -- don't just address a small coterie of students in front of you.
6. Ask hard questions of both men and women.
7. After asking a question, wait five or ten seconds for hands to go up. The average "wait time" after asking a question is one second. Count silently one thousand, two thousand, three thousand to help you endure the silence. Recognize that women often wait longer than men to raise their hands because they are thinking about what to say.
8. "Coach" all students with comments and questions such as : "Tell me more," or "Why do you think that is?" Coaching conveys your belief that the student is bright enough to say more.
9. Watch for students' nonverbal cues, such as leaning forward, and then engage them by saying something like, "Can you start us off?" or "Would you like to add to this?"
10. When a student deserves it, offer praise. ("I like what you said," or, at least, "That's an interesting idea.")
11. Keep a teaching journal, especially at the beginning of the semester. Record in it which students are contributing and which are not. Nake a point of encouraging the silent students.
12. Use the same tone when talking with all students. Don't be impatient or condescending.
13. Avoid the so-called generic "he" or "mankind." When you say "she or he," you communicate your awareness of women's concerns.

Reprinted from "Teaching Faculty Members to be Better Teachers: A Guide to Equitable and Effective Classroom Techniques," Bernice Sandler and Ellen Hoffman. Association of American Colleges, 1992.