Syllabus - Classification of Sciences
1.180-202 G-1903-2b
180. This classification, which aims to base itself on the
principal affinities of the objects classified, is concerned not
with all possible sciences, nor with so many branches of
knowledge, but with sciences in their present condition, as so many
businesses of groups of living men. It borrows its idea from
Comte's classification; namely, the idea that one science
depends upon another for fundamental principles, but does not
furnish such principles to that other. It turns out that in most
cases the divisions are trichotomic; the First of the three
members relating to universal elements or laws, the Second
arranging classes of forms and seeking to bring them under universal
laws, the Third going into the utmost detail, describing
individual phenomena and endeavoring to explain them. But not
all the divisions are of this character.
The classification has been carried into great detail; ** but
only its broader divisions are here given.
181. All science is either, A. Science of Discovery; B. Science
of Review; or C. Practical Science.
182. By " science of review " is meant the business of those
who occupy themselves with arranging the results of
discovery, beginning with digests, and going on to endeavor to
form a philosophy of science. Such is the nature of Humboldt's
Cosmos, of Comte's Philosophie positive, and of Spencer's
* Pp. 5-9 of A Syllabus of Certain Topics of Logic, 1903, Alfred Mudge & Son
Boston, bearing the following preface: "This syllabus has for its object to
supplement a course of eight lectures to be delivered at the Lowell Institute, by
some statements for which there will not be time in the lectures, and by some
others not easily carried away from one hearing. It is intended to be a help to
those who wish seriously to study the subject, and to show others what the style
of thought is that is required in such study. Like the lectures themselves, this
syllabus is intended chiefly to convey results that have never appeared in print;
and much is omitted because it can be found elsewhere."
** See 203ff. where, also, some modifications of the present scheme are to be
found. Cf. e.g. 181 and 239. |p78
Synthetic Philosophy. The classification of the sciences belongs
to this department.
183. Science of Discovery is either, I. Mathematics; II.
Philosophy; or III. Idioscopy.*
184. Mathematics studies what is and what is not logically
possible, without making itself responsible for its actual
existence. Philosophy is positive science, in the sense of discovering
what really is true; but it limits itself to so much of truth as
can be inferred from common experience. Idioscopy embraces
all the special sciences, which are principally occupied with the
accumulation of new facts.
185. Mathematics may be divided into a. the Mathematics
of Logic; b. the Mathematics of Discrete Series; c. the
Mathematics of Continua and Pseudo-continua.
I shall not carry this division further. Branch b has recourse
to branch a, and branch c to branch b.
186. Philosophy is divided into a. Phenomenology; b.
Normative Science; c. Metaphysics.
Phenomenology ascertains and studies the kinds of elements
universally present in the phenomenon; meaning by the
phenomenon, whatever is present at any time to the mind in any
way. Normative science distinguishes what ought to be from
what ought not to be, and makes many other divisions and
arrangements subservient to its primary dualistic distinction.
Metaphysics seeks to give an account of the universe of mind
and matter. Normative science rests largely on phenomenology
and on mathematics; metaphysics on phenomenology and on
normative science.
187. Idioscopy has two wings: à. the Physical Sciences;
and á. the Psychical, or Human Sciences.
Psychical science borrows principles continually from the
physical sciences; the latter very little from the former.
188. The physical sciences are: a. Nomological, or General,
Physics; b. Classificatory Physics; c. Descriptive Physics.
Nomological physics discovers the ubiquitous phenomena of
the physical universe, formulates their laws, and measures
their constants. It draws upon metaphysics and upon
mathematics for principles. Classificatory physics describes and
classifies physical forms and seeks to explain them by the laws
* See 242n for Bentham's definition of this term.
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discovered by nomological physics with which it ultimately
tends to coalesce. Descriptive physics describes individual
objects -- the earth and the heavens -- endeavors to explain
their phenomena by the principles of nomological and
classificatory physics, and tends ultimately itself to become
classificatory.
189. The Psychical Sciences are: a. Nomological Psychics
or Psychology; b. Classificatory Psychics, or Ethnology; c.
Descriptive Psychics, or History.
Nomological psychics discovers the general elements and
laws of mental phenomena. It is greatly influenced by
phenomenology, by logic, by metaphysics, and by biology (a
branch of classificatory physics). Classificatory psychics
classifies products of mind and endeavors to explain them on
psychological principles. At present it is far too much in its
infancy (except linguistics, to which reference will be made
below) to approach very closely to psychology. It borrows
from psychology and from physics. Descriptive psychics
endeavors in the first place to describe individual manifestations
of mind, whether they be permanent works or actions; and to
that task it joins that of endeavoring to explain them on the
principles of psychology and ethnology. It borrows from
geography (a branch of descriptive physics), from astronomy
(another branch) and from other branches of physical and
psychical science.
I now consider the subdivisions of these sciences, so far as
they are so widely separated as quite to sunder the groups of
investigators who today study them.
190. Phenomenology is, at present, a single study.
191. Normative science has three widely separated
divisions: i. Esthetics; ii. Ethics; iii. Logic.
Esthetics is the science of ideals, or of that which is
objectively admirable without any ulterior reason. I am not well
acquainted with this science; but it ought to repose on
phenomenology. Ethics, or the science of right and wrong, must
appeal to Esthetics for aid in determining the summum bonum.
It is the theory of self-controllsd, or deliberate, conduct. Logic
is the theory of self-controlled, or deliberate, thought; and as
such, must appeal to ethics for its principles. It also depends
upon phenomenology and upon mathematics. All thought
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being performed by means of signs, logic may be regarded as
the science of the general laws of signs. It has three branches:
1, Speculative Grammar, or the general theory of the nature
and meanings of signs, whether they be icons, indices, or
symbols; 2, Critic, which classifies arguments and determines the
validity and degree of force of each kind; 3, Methodeutic,
which studies the methods that ought to be pursued in the
investigation, in the exposition, and in the application of truth.
Each division depends on that which precedes it.
192. Metaphysics may be divided into, i, General
Metaphysics, or Ontology; ii, Psychical, or Religious, Metaphysics,
concerned chiefly with the questions of 1, God, 2, Freedom,
3, Immortality; and iii, Physical Metaphysics, which discusses
the real nature of time, space, laws of nature, matter, etc. The
second and third branches appear at present to look upon one
another with supreme contempt.
193. Nomological physics is divided into, i, Molar Physics,
Dynamics and Gravitation; ii, Molecular Physics, Elaterics
and Thermodynamics; iii, Etherial Physics, Optics and
Electrics. Each division has two subdivisions. The dependence of
the divisions is well marked.
194. Classificatory physics seems, at present, as a matter of
fact, to be divided, quite irrationally and most unequally, into
i, Crystallography; ii, Chemistry; iii, Biology.
195. But crystallography is rather an offshoot from
chemistry, to which it furnishes a few facts, but hardly a principle.
It is highly mathematical and depends also on elaterics.
Biology might be regarded (although, as a matter of fact, no
such view is taken) as the chemistry of the albumoids and of
the forms they assume. It is probable that all the differences
of races, individuals, and tissues are chemical, at bottom. At
any rate, the possible varieties of albuminoids are amply
sufficient to account for all the diversity of organic forms.
196. Pure chemistry seems, at present, to consist of, 1.
Physical Chemistry, consisting of the old chemical physics and
the modern chemical dynamics; 2. Organic Chemistry,
Aliphatic and Aromatic; 3, Inorganic Chemistry, consisting of the
doctrine of the elements, their atomic weights, periodicity, etc.,
and the doctrine of compounds.
197. Biology is divided into, 1. Physiology; and 2. Anatomy.
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Physiology is closely allied to chemistry and physics.
Anatomy is divided into many distinct fields, according to the
nature of the forms studied.
198. Descriptive physics is divided into, 1, Geognosy, and,
2, Astronomy. Both have various well-known subdivisions.
199. Psychology is most naturally divided, according to
the methods it follows, into, i, Introspectional Psychology; ii,
Experimental Psychology; iii, Physiological Psychology; iv,
Child Psychology.
This division only admits those parts of psychology which
investigate the general phenomena of mind. Special
psychology belongs to classificatory psychics. Both experimental and
physiological psychology are dependent upon introspective
psychology. But it is hard to say which of them derives most
from the other. Child psychology depends on all the others.
Psychology is too young a science to have any further living
divisions than such as are here admitted.
200. Classificatory psychics is divided into, i, Special
Psychology, itself consisting of, 1, Individual Psychology; 2,
Psychical Heredity; 3, Abnormal Psychology; 4, Mob Psychology;
5, Race Psychology; 6, Animal Psychology; ii, Linguistics, a
vast science, divided according to the families of speech, and
cross-divided into, 1, Word Linguistics; 2, Grammar; and there
should be a comparative science of forms of composition; iii,
Ethnology, divided into, 1, the Ethnology of Social
Developments, customs, laws, religion, and traditions; and, 2, the
Ethnology of Technology.
201. Descriptive psychics is divided into, i, History proper,
itself divided according to the nature of its data into, 1,
Monumental History; 2, Ancient History with all other history
that is drawn from few and general testimonies; 3, History
drawn from a wealth of documents, as Modern History,
generally. History has, beside, two cross-divisions; the one into,
1, Political History; 2, History of the Different Sciences; 3,
History of Social Developments, religion, law, slavery,
manners, etc.; the other according to the different parts of the world
and the different peoples whose history is studied; ii,
Biography, which at present is rather a mass of lies than a science;
iii, Criticism, the study of individual works of mind, itself
divided into, 1, Literary Criticism; 2, Art Criticism, of which
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the latter is divided into many departments, as Criticism of
Military Operations, Criticism of Architecture, etc.
202. The classification of practical sciences has been
elaborated by the author, but will not here be touched upon.* No
classification of the science of review has been attempted.
* See 243.