| CIV 102 & CIV 102W | |||||||||||||||||||
| SOCIAL SCIENCE | NATURAL SCIENCE | HUMANITIES | |||||||||||||||||
| LECTURE | ENGINEERS AND ENTREPENEURS | SPECIFIC CONTRIBUTIONS | LECTURE DEMONSTRATION | MODERN LEGACY | TRANSFOR-MATIONS | KEY IDEAS | POLITICAL | SOCIAL | ECONOMIC | FORMULAS | PHYSICS | CHEMISTRY | MATERIALS | FORMULAS | VISUAL ARTS AND FINE ARTS | LITERATURE AND EDUCATION | FORMULAS | ||
| September 15 Engineering in the Modern World Independence, Iron and Industry 1776 - 1855 Connecting the Continent 1830 - 1883 Rise of Great American Industries 1876 - 1939 Regional Restructuring 1921 - 1964 Information and Infrastructure 1946 - | Private Innovation = Invention + Entrepeneur Public Innovation = Crisis + Entrepeneur The innovators brought ideas into practice which have lasted. They pioneered new fields by individual genius, by applied science, and through a social process. | Engineering is a profession based upon experiment, analysis, development, and refinement. Engineers design objects and systems: - performance: scientific prediction - production: economic fabrication - perception: aesthetic stimulation | Website is located at http://www. princeton.edu/ ~civ102 Lecture demonstrations highlight key technical ideas. | There are legacies to every technology discussed. Structures and Networks: permanent provided that they are maintained Machines and Processes: principles are permanent with refinements Corporations and Public Agencies. | -Force, power, distance, or material -Social patterns and behavior -Symbolism and form -Structures: components to monolith -Machines: boxlike to streamlined -Networks: point to continuous service -Processes: batch to continuous process | Structures: large scale, custom made, static, public works Machines: small scale, mass produced, dynamic, private industry Networks: large scale, static system, transmit, public and private Processes: small scale, dynamic system, transmute, private | - Public works and multi-state agencies versus private industry and large corporations - Monopolies vs. competition: government can both create and destroy monopolies - Patents vs. regulations: patents encourage invention, regulations protect consumer | - Transformation of society through engineering - American private universities and foundations grew from donations of many innovators - Personal transportation, personal light, personal communication, personal entertainment, personal computing | - Public finance requires political activity from a public service entrepeneur. - Private finance connects with capitalist system (market economy) leading to a private enterprise entrepeneur. - New products must compete with existing products. | Formulas express social issues and trade-offs: costs, risks and benefits. Codes and standards contain formulas driven by societal demands. Congress has the right to regulate interstate commerce (US Constitution). | Costs, risks and benefits: Structures - materials and construction, failure, convenience Machines - fuel, environment and safety, value of power Processes - labor and materials, environment, product Networks - infrastructure, failure, service | - Equilibrium of forces and moments - Unbalanced forces cause accelerations Mechanical: - Power equals force times velocity - Work equals force times distance Electrical: - Power equals voltage times current - Energy equals charge times voltage | Mass conservation in chemical reactions - balancing equations -Combustion of coal and hydrocarbons: energy source -Refining of valuable resources: iron, aluminum, gasoline | Refined materials obtained from raw materials: - cast iron, wrought iron, steel and concrete - petroleum, lamp oil, gasoline, rubber, and jet fuel - plastics, white pigment, silicon. | Formulas express relationships in their simplist form. Horizontal force in a structure. Mechanical power in a machine. Electrical power in a network. Chemical equation for a process. | Art reflects society and technology influences art. Examples: Thomas Cole: 1828 Landscape with Dead Tree 1846 The Picnick Mondrian: 1932 Composition B Light Grey and Yellow 1944 Broadway Boogie Woogie | How american literature is influenced by technology: Leo Marx: The Machine in the Garden Hawthorne, Thoreau, Emerson, Melville, James, and Fitzgerald Cecelia Tichi: Shifting Gears Hemingway, Dos Passos, Williams | Formulas describe form and symbolism. Form is an aesthetic choice within the framework of efficiency and economy Different forms illustrate choice: Ohio River bridges The choice of a flat parabolic arch yields an elegant design which is also efficient | |
| September 17 Engineered Large Scale Structures: Arch and Suspension Bridges The first modern suspension bridge: Menai Straits Bridge The first modern arch bridge: Craigellachie Bridge | Thomas Telford "Structural Artist" "Father of Civil Engineering" (1757 - 1834) | Telford engineered metal bridges. His arch bridges and suspension bridge are built in the modern form. Unlike previous designers, Telford realized that using iron in bridges required new forms to achieve elegance, efficiency and economy. | Vertical and Horizontal Forces: - Menai Straits Bridge Model: scale and behavior of suspension bridge. - Cable Forces and Form: vector decomposition, axial tension; polygonal shape for point loads, parabolic shape for uniform load. | - Longest spanning suspension bridge: Kobe, Japan - Longest spanning arch bridge: New River Gorge Bridge in Virginia | The cable transforms vertical loads into horizontal tension forces. The arch transforms vertical loads into horizontal compression forces. | The new material of iron allowed for a new type of structure to be built at unprecedented scales. Telford was both a structural designer and an artist - he choose elegant designs within the constraints of economy and efficiency. | The traffic loads and safety factors must be decided by public agencies. When and where to build a bridge are important decisions. There is a trade-off between economy and safety. | Industrial Revolution: New material of iron allows entirely new structures. Large scale structures have the potential for major failures. | A high span to sag ratio (~10) allows for the efficient use of materials. Repetitive pieces allow for the economical casting of pieces. Costs of cable / arch, deck, towers, and anchors / abutements each need to be considered. | Safety is a social choice. f = allowable stress fb = breaking stress S.F. = safety factor - for steel fb can be from 30 ksi to 300 ksi - society must choose the safety factor | Equilibrium of forces: Towers hold up cables which in turn hold up the deck. Anchors hold tension in cables. Cable transforms vertical loads into horizontal forces. | Cast iron and wrought iron: Development of process to produce large quantities of iron allowed for its use in large structures. | Arch/Cable Bridge V = Vertical component of axial force H = Horizontal component of axial force T = Total axial force at tower/support q = Angle of cable f = stress (force per area) A = cross-sectional area | Structural Art: - elegance of a low profile - lightness in large scale structures - clear presentation of how forces are carried Telford also liked the appearance of stone towers | Telford's writing on structural art explains his opinions on elegant forms and the possibility of choosing a form within the disciplines of economy and efficiency. | Flat and parabolic qL = bridge weight L/d = bridge form H = cable force qL L/d -> H A high L/d ratio leads to a low profile and elegant span. The visual appeal of a parabola. | |||
| September 22 Atmospheric Steam Engine The Engineered Machine: The Watt Engine | James Watt "Brilliant Inventor" "Father of Mechanical Enginering" (1736 - 1819) Matthew Boulton "Entrepeneur" (1728 - 1809) | Watt working as a true mechanical engineer invented the separate condensor, the flyball governor, and a rotary engine. Boulton was a true entrepeneur who guided Watt in what to develop and established a research and development lab. | Machines: Atmospheric Steam Engine Change of state: when steam (gaseous water) condenses a partial vacuum is created. Piston: the area of a piston head and the pressure acting on it lead to a force: F = PA. | Steam turbines: Paradise Power Plant Modern internal combustion engine uses same principles: reciprocating, but with a different fuel. The Corliss Engine, a high pressure steam engine, is the last great steam engine | The atmospheric steam engine transforms water to steam through coal, steam to pressure through condensation, and pressure to reciprocating force through pistons. Thus coal is converted into useful work. | Watt, the founder of mechanical engineering, was a brilliant inventor who worked with Boulton, an entrepenuer, to produce major innovations. Steam power replaced animal and human labor and required new resources (coal). | Boulton got congress to extend the patent for the separate condensor in 1775 allowing Boulton and Watt to dominate the steam engine market for 25 years. | The atmospheric steam engine is the machine that launched the industrial revolution through the pump, railroad, and steam boat. It transformed society through static and mobile applications. | Watt's invention of the separate condensor allowed his engine to perform three times as much work while using the same amount of fuel. | The horse is replaced by a machine. Steam pressure and steam pistons allowed for a new power. Work - Force times Distance Power - Force times Velocity PA -> Piston Force LN -> Power Stroke Frequency (Distance per Time) | Properties of water: - vacuum produced when steam condenses - converts heat to pressure | Coal: the fuel for heating water | Steam Engine Hp = Horsepower 1 hp = 33,000 ft lbs per minute P = Pressure L = Stroke length A = Pistion area N = Strokes (per minute) F = force (lbs) V = velocity (ft / min) P = power in ft-lbs per min | Physical images of new machines: factories and cities, steamboats and railroads. Steam and Horse Power. | British artistic response to Industrial Revolution. John Ruskin Gothic Revival | Power versus mobility (weight): Form is embodied in LA - Big LA leads to heavy and powerful - Small LA leads to light and weak - High pressure leads to danger, but light and powerful - Fast action leads to fatigue, but light and powerful | |||
| September 24 America's First Major Contribution to World Technology (de Toqueville) Mobile Machines: Steam Boat The Washington River Networks: The Mississippi | Robert Fulton (1765 - 1815) Robert Livingston ( ) Henry Miller Shreve (1785 - 1851) | Fulton was an innovator who organized a Watt engine for a steamboat, developed expressions for drag, designed the hull of his boat, and realized the relationship between engine power and propulsion power. | Steam Boat: Drag of objects in water. Beaufoy's experiments. - Drag is a force that limits the speed of boats - Drag increases with speed | Modern boats are designed based on thrust and drag. | The steamboat transforms rivers to transportation networks for people. | Fulton, an artist and engineer, puts together existing technology to make an efficient steam boat. Fulton's partner and financial backer, Livingston, helps secure a monopoly on the Hudson, and purchases the other side of the Mississippi River. | Livingston, signer of the Declaration of Independence and Ambassador to France, negotiates the Louisiana Purchase (w/ Monroe) securing the Mississippi for steam boat traffic. | Regulation: Alfred Guthrie (1805 - 1882) presents statistics on steam boiler explosions helping to establish the first regulatory agency in 1852. This marks the beginning of federal regulation. | Monopoly on Hudson River secured by Livingston, but broken in 1824 by supreme court ruling: Ogden vs. Gibbins. This establishes the Army Corps of Engineers' jurisdiction over rivers. Competition on the Mississippi with Shreve. | Boilers explode when technology is pushed for performance. High pressure, P, and small thickness, h, lead to faster but less safe (high f) steamboats. | Thrust equals drag. Drag increases with the velocity squared. Power = Thrust x Velocity | Steam Boat D = drag force p = water pressure CD = drag coefficient Pp = paddle power T = thrust Vp = paddle velocity PE = engine power pT = pressure for thrust Ap = paddle area VT = thrust velocity | Paintings by Benjamin West and Robert Fulton. Sketch for Giant Steamboats at New Orleans (1850) by Hippolyte Sebron | Samuel Clemens (1835 - 1910) as Mark Twain: Life on the Mississippi (1883) | Big Government: conceptual shift - government as the saviour of the general public - equation for stress in boiler pinpoints what government can control... pressure and stress f = P r / h | ||||
| September 27 America's First Major Industry (Regional): Textiles Machines: Textile Mill The Francis Turbine Network: Lowell Canal The Weir | Francis Cabot Lowell (1775 - 1817) Uriah Atherton Boyden (1804 - 1879) James B. Francis (1815 - 1892) | Lowell was an innovator who developed the integrated textile mill. Raw cotton would go into the mill and a finished product would come out. Francis was a pioneer, stimulated by Boyden, who designed, tested, and implemented weirs and turbines. | Measurement of head: force or pressure of water. Measurement of flow - the weir. The turbine? | The turbines in the Hoover dam are Francis turbines. The Lowell family is major benefactor and contributor to Harvard. Francis is one of the founders of MIT. | The turbine transforms flow to rotation. A head creates the flow, which is transformed by the turbine into rotation, the rotating mechanical drive shaft runs the machinery in the mill. The mill transforms cotton into finished fabrics. | Lowell and Moody create a new industry by utilizing the natural power of the Pawtucket Falls. Lowell uses his experiences from Britain to develop a factory that is innovative in both its machinery and labor practices. Francis creates a R & D lab. | Tarrif on Indian imports enacted because of Lowell's influence. | Society moves from farm to factory, country to city and craft to engineering. The complete factory town created by Lowell is successful where Robert Owen's town failed. Young, unmarried women are employed for a short period of time. | Stimulus of existing mills in Britain allows Lowell, with Moody, to create an efficient factory. Later, Francis works with turbines and the weir allowing the measurement of flow. | Customers need to be billed in proportion to their use. The weir allows for the accurate measurement of flow which dictates the power per factory. Length (L), Height (H), and number of sides (n) -> Measurement of flow (Q) without interruption. | Efficiency = Power Out / Power In. | Water Turbine Hp = potential horsepower Q = flow w = weight density H = head (or drop) Pin = power input (in ft-lbs/sec) Pout = power output T = thrust V = velocity E = efficiency | Winslow Homer - morning bell at Lowell Constable - water wheel depicting craft water power. | James Russel Lowell Poet and Professor at Harvard (1819 - 1891) Abbott Lawrence Lowell President of Harvard (1856 - 1943) Amy Lowell Poet (1874 - 1925) Robert Lowell Poet (1917 - ) The Lowell Offering, A Repository written by "Factory Girls" | Transformation of a river valley with a power network: controlling flow, Q, and head, H - Canals, dams and gates; weirs and turbines - Domesticating nature by harnessing water. - Resculpturing the terrain (e.g. canal walks) -- Landscape architecture | ||||
| September 29 Networks: Railroads Transcontinental Line Machines: The Rocket, The Lancaster | George Stephenson "RR Pioneer" (1781 - 1848) Robert Stephenson (1803 - 1859) John Jervis Matthias Baldwin "American Locomotive Designer" (1795 - 1866) J. Edgar Thomson "Engineer Executive" (1808 - 1874) | The Stephenson's innovate the railroad in Britain by using a Watt engine and metal wheels on metal rails. In America, Jervis invents the bogie; Baldwin is the premier designer and builder of locomotives. Thomson builds an industry with the P & RR. | Friction - K'NEX Machine Incline experiments | Railroad Network for transportation and freight. | The railroad transforms an isolated country into connected cities and states through a transportation network. Local mean time to standard time (1893) River to rail St. Louis to Chicago | Thomson, the engineer executive, feeds profits back into the railroads to continue innovation and expansion. The railroads connect the continent making it possible to quickly travel from east to west. | J.P. Morgan stops competition in 1885 on the Corsair Yacht. Regulation: 1883 standard time zones 1887 Interstate Commerce Act 1903 Roosevelt makes RR officials liable. | St. Louis fights for equality with Chicago with the Eads Bridge. | Competition: Broad gauge versus narrow gauge in Britain Baltimore, Philadelphia and New York in the East St. Louis and Chicago in the midwest. | RR connects cities by moving freight and transporting people. Thrust must be large to carry load. Velocity must be high to transport people quickly. T =thrust, W =locomotive weight, V =velocity, DW =diameter, N =strokes/min, t =time, d =distance | Thrust equals drag. | Steel bridges and steel rails: stronger and more reliable material than iron. Eads bridge is the first steel bridge made possible by Bessemer, Carnegie and Thomson. Thomson was the first to use steel rails. | Locomotive T = thrust R = rolling resistance D = drag (air) H = hill resistance CR = coeff rolling resistance W = weight on wheels a = angle CD = drag coeff p = air pressure Af = frontal area m = coeff friction PT = traction power PE = engine power | Leo Marx: The Railroad in American Art Joseph Turner: Rain, Steam and Speed Rolling Power (1939) by Charles Sheeler George Inness, Jason Cropsey RR brought impressionists to the country.. e.g. Monet | Leo Marx: The Machine in the Garden | Power and Speed Thrust, T, must be large to scale the mountains Velocity, V, must be large to cross the country quickly. Railroads unified the nation by bringing states together. The Golden Spike at Promontory Point. | |||
| October 1 The First National Company Networks: The Telegraph & Western Union | Joseph Henry "Scientist and Inventor" (1799 - 1878) Samuel Morse "Innovator" (1791 - 1872) Ezra Cornell "Entrepenuer" (1807 - 1874) | Henry invents the strong electromagnet, and he uses it for a telegraph. Morse puts together a working system which leads to Western Union. Cornell is enlisted by Morse and builds the first telegraph line. | Henry's telegraph and electromagnet. | The telgraph, the telephone and the internet. Cornell's wealth creates Cornell University. | The telegraph transforms communication and transportation: a message can be sent with no human (or animal) carrier. A battery tranforms metal into electricity; the current creates an electromagnet which sounds a clacker. | Morse, the engineer, Henry, the scientist, and Cornell, the entrepenuer, innovate the idea of intelligence at a distance through the telegraph. Western Union is the first major national industry formed in the U.S. | Morse obtains a $30,000 grant from Congress. Patent dispute Morse vs Henry, 1854. Morse's patent is upheld. Morril Act of 1862 helps Cornell found Cornell University in Ithaca, NY. | Safety had been a major problem on single line railroads because of head on collisions. The telegraph allowed for efficient schedules and safe transport. | Western Union became a wealthy industry because of the economic construction of a telegraph network. Without the inventions of Henry and innovations of Morse and Cornell this would not be possible. | Instantaneous communication at a distance. A circuit with lots of turns of wire overcomes the difficulty of transmitting electricity over a distance. A high voltage (V), high current (I) battery is needed for long distances (L). | Ohm's Law and Kirchoff's Laws. Ohm's law tells us that the voltage and current are linearly related through the material property of resistance. Kirchoff's laws state conservation of charge and potential. | Strong Electro-magnet and Telegraph R = resistance r = resistivity L = length A = wire area V = voltage I = current F = force B = flux density A = pole area | Morse, a first rate artist, learned painting from Benjamin West. Morse was the first professor of art in the US, he founded the National Academy of Design. | Princeton - Henry Yale - Morse Cornell - Cornell | Action at a distance: the telegraph sent a message instantaneously (near the speed of light). - Communication over the mountains unified the country. - Communication along the single line railroads improved safety and RR speed. | ||||
| October 6 Lighting the City Networks: Power and Electric Light Machines: Light Bulb, Pearl Street Power Plant | Thomas Alva Edison (1847 - 1931) Francis Upton ( ) Nikola Tesla (1856 - ) Elihu Thomson (1853 - 1937) J. Pierpont Morgan (1837 - 1913) George Westinghouse (1846 - 1914) | Edison was a great inventor, entrepeneur, and innovator. Upton works as Edison's chief scientist /engineer. Tesla, an inventor, leaves Edison to work on AC with Westinghouse, an innovator. Thomson's company merged with Edison's forms GE: Morgan. | Light: the line losses from the resistance of copper wire are a major factor in producing light. By using a high voltage and low current these losses can be reduced. To achieve this system, a high resistance filament is needed. | Today, lighting is provided through a network of alternating current which allows the transmission of electricity at very high voltages and the safe use at low voltages. Some railroads still use direct current systems where the voltage can remain high. | The light bulb transforms electricity into light. The high resistance heats the filament which gives off light when it is hot. Edison's networks light the cities. | Edison, with Upton's assistance, creates a direct current lighting system, by using a high resistance filament to reduce power losses in transmission. Edison's company becomes general electric through the merger of Thomson's company via J. P. Morgan. | Grant for research lab in 1876. Wall street and Morgan. 1879 patent for lamp and 1882 Pearl Street Plant. Edison patents everything and never loses a patent battle. | In 1931, Hoover wanted a day where electricity would be shut off. At this time, it was realized that it was not feasible. | Competition with gas light and arc light. The high resistance filament and direct current system replaces old lighting systems in cities. Alternating current can be used at larger distances. | Affordable personal lighting The current, I, in a circuit is determined by the voltage, V, and the total resistance, R. A high resistance filament leads to a lower current. The power loss depends on the current squared and the resistance in the lines. | Transformation of power: fuel -> heat -> steam -> horsepower -> kilowatts -> lines -> lights. | High resistance filament and copper wires. | Electric Light V = voltage in volts I = current in amps R = resistance in ohms P = power in watts Rs = system resistance r = resistivity L = length A = wire area | Joseph Stella: New York Interpreted: The White Way World Columbian Exhibition in Chicago:1893... the Tower of Light | Henry Adams: The Education of Henry Adams (The Virgin and the Dynamo) | Indoor light: extension of the day Paradox: the light bulb is able to 'burn' without being consumed. (in fact, it is not burning but merely hot). | |||
| October 8 Machines: Automobile, IC Engine The Model - T Processes: Internal Combustion, Assembly Line Network: Interstate Highway System Structures: New Bridges Designed for Cars | Rudolph Otto (1832 - 1891) Henry Ford (1863 - 1947) Alfred P. Sloan ( ) Seldon | Otto presents his internal combustion engine at 1876 World's Fair. Ford uses assembly line to create an inexpensive car. Sloan creates a hit by introducing new models every year. Seldon receives patent for car in 1895- Ford successfully fights patent. | The 2-stroke internal combustion engine. Ping Pong Rocket: thermal expansion during combustion: 7 to 1 change in temperature creates a 7 to 1 change in pressure. Experiment will combust hydrogen, obtained through electrolysis of water, firing ball. | The automobile continues to dominate transportation, particularly in the US. The car is dominantly a private vehicle for personal transportation. | Dirt roads to paved roads. From rail to road (e.g. Pennsylvania Turnpike built on RR right-of-way) Creation of long span bridges for cars. Gasoline to heat/pressure to motion. Factories : individual assembly (batch) to assembly line (continuous). | Ford's Model - T dominates the market for 19 years. It's the first car for the masses. | Seldon gets patent in 1895 based on rough idea of automobile. He does not build a working model. Ford fights patent and wins in 1911 after years of litigation. | New leisure and mobility: the family car. Assembly line changes factory environment. | The five dollar day enables workers to buy the Model-T. Fordism focuses on whole factory operation rather than individual tasks. | Fast personal transportation with quick acceleration. The rapid acceleration appealed to the masses. The IC engine has a quick response. T = traction force Fp = piston force m = mass of car r = gear ratio Smog from NOx. | 4-stroke internal combustion engine: intake, compression, ignition and exhaust. Thrust = rolling resistance + aerodynamic drag | Process of internal combustion. One filling of cylinder with air determined power. C8H18 + 11.5O2 + 43.7N2 -> 6CO2 + 9H20 + 2CO + 43.7N2 | In 1938, auto industry uses most amount of gas, rubber and steel: % of total US consumption -- Gasoline - 90% Rubber - 80% Steel - 17% See Automobile Facts and Figures. | Automobile T = thrust R = rolling resistance D = aerodynamic drag H = hill resistance a = angle of hill m = coefficient of friction (rubber on road) W = weight on driving wheels PT = traction power V = velocity in mph PE = engine power | "Dynamism of an Automobile," by Luigi Russolo Balla 1913 "Speed and Light" (Ford and Edison) Jacques-Henri Lartigue "Grand Prix of the Automobile Club of France 1912" Bacionni Car racing beagles Chaplin, Modern Times. | Fitzgerald, The Great Gatsby Dos Passos, Shifting Gears Naturalist John Burrows | Speed or velocity is the central image of the car. It is impeded by rolling resistance and drag: T = CRW + CDpAf Paved roads and streamlining are visual consequences of these impediments. Thrust is needed to climb hills quickly. | ||
| October 13 Machines: The Airplane The Wright Flyer | Orville Wright (1871 - 1948) Wilbur Wright (1867 - 1912) Samuel Langley (1834 - 1906) Douglas Boeing | Wright Brothers: the first sustained flight, at Kitty Hawk. Wind tunnel tests, special engine design, and manual controls for flight. Langley - secretary of Smithsonian, and well known competitor. | Drag Balance Lift? Control? | Public global transportation system Wright Flyer -> Douglas DC-3, Boeing 707 -> 747, Concord Romantic idea of flight is realized. | Very large airports built away from cities Speed is 10 times that of RR and car, connecting nations and shrinking the world Biplane to monowing; IC engine to jet; wind to lift; rotary motion to thrust From bicycles to planes | The development of the airplane was not a result of applied science but rather driven by entrepenereurial motives. Wright Brothers succeeded because they understood stability, studied the literature, used full scale tests, and worked methodically. | Smithsonian authorizes fake in 1914. Orville sends the Flyer to London in 1925. Finally in 1942, Smithsonian recants and the Flyer is returned in 1948. Wright brothers approach US Army and Post Office for funding. | Airplane is too large, expensive and dangerous for individual ownership. | Army contracts. Investment cost and operating cost too high for private sector. | Long distance, high speed, and high visibility. Fuel and passengers increase weight (W). High speed (V) requires a high thrust (T) to overcome drag (D). Safety. Risk of stalling or loosing lift depends on the velocity (V) and weight (W). | Lift and weight Thrust and drag Aerodynamic stability. Kinship between bicycle and airplane in that both require control for their successful operation. | Jet fuel from petroleum. | Light metal required for airplanes - aluminum. | Airplane W = weight L = lift V = velocity S = wing area CL = lift coeff. T = thrust D = drag Sf = frontal area CD = drag coeff. PP = propellor power PD = drag power PE = engine power E = transmission and propellor efficiency | A new vision: the world from above; streamlining and speed. Robert Delaunay: Windows Cubism: Picasso and Braque called themselves Orville and Wilbur. | Ernest Hemingway The Snows of Kilamanjaro - airplane imagery | Form drag for wire and airfoil Coefficient of drag for wright flyer and DC-3 | ||
| October 15 Networks: Telephone, Wireless Telegraph and Radio Machines: Telephone, Radio | J. C. Maxwell H. Hertz G. Marconi Deforest Armstrong Sarnoff A. G. Bell E. Grey T. Vail | Maxwell, Hertz: explain electricity and magnetism Marconi: develops wireless telegraph Deforest, Armstrong: radio development - AM and FM Sarnoff: RCA, radio giant Bell: telephone, variable resistance Grey: Bell's competitor Vail: first AT & T executive | Microphone: - Bell uses electrolytic microphone. - Edison invents the carbon microphone Loudspeaker: - Joseph Henry advises Bell about how to make a loudspeaker Resonance frequency of a dipole aerial and wire loop. | AT & T - telephone RCA - television Radio - broadcast Internet - distortionless network Cellular phones | Transformation of code or voice to electric signals or radio waves and back again to code or voice. Transformation from slow communication to instant communication. | Marconi develops a wireless telegraph system. He forms a company which manufactures, sells and operates his telegraph for boats. Sarnoff creates american radio corporation with the backing of the US Navy. Vail starts the telephone company, AT & T. | President Roosevelt initiates the 'Fireside Chats' with the American people.. shrinks the scale of the country. Patent disputes: DeForest vs. Armstrong (1914-1934) Armstrong loses. FM: Sarnoff vs. Armstrong. Armstrong loses. | Changes living patterns. Instant communication kills the letter. Radio brings news, drama, and music to America's livingroom. In US, the phone company AT & T remains private, but regulated. Telephone companies in the rest of the world are public. | AT & T becomes the biggest US corporation. Bell's patent allows AT & T to monopolize market. Bell beats Grey to patent office by 2 hours. Bell fights off 600 challenges to his patent. | S.O.S. and Sarnoff's music box and 'phone home'. 2 wire - 2 direction communication is economical. | Maxwell's prediction of electromagnetic waves that travel at 3 x 108 m/s. Variable resistance (current loop) as method of 2-way communication. Modulation of carrier wave to enscribe audio information. | Copper: abundant material of low resistivity. AT&T reclaims copper in 19-- making it the largest copper producer in the world. | Radio and Telephone f = frequency l = wavelength c = speed of light L = antenna length I = current V = voltage R = resistance oscillators: from spark to alternator to electronic valve modulation: intermittent to continuous waves | Radio kills the concert. Piano in the living room is replaced by radio. RCA buys an orchestra and internationally known conductor. | Radio drama: "War of the Worlds," by Orson Wells | Modulated Carrier Wave Modulation maintains tone of voice - radio personalities. V = Sin(wmt)Sin(wct) where wm << wc wc = 2pf Speed of EM waves: instant communication. | |||
| October 20 Review: Themes | Monopolies vs competition : examples - Standard Oil and AT & T Patents and a 'patent monopoly': encourage entrepeneurial behavior by reducing risks of competition. | Costs and risks take different forms. The cost of a structure depends on materials and labor, the risk depends on design and use. Network failures cause secondary system failures (hospitals). Machines and processes have environmental consequences. | Many benefits are explained by what was replaced. The machine has an output of horses. The bridge replaces the ferry or time consuming crossing. The network replaces old networks (hand - delivered mail). The process creates a new material (steel). | ||||||||||||||||
| October 22 Midterm Exam | |||||||||||||||||||
| November 3 Dominant Steel Company Processes: Steel Blast Furnace and Bessemer Process J. Edgar Thomson Steel Works | Andrew Carnegie (1835 - 1919) Henry Clay Frick ( ) Henry Bessemer (1813 - 1898) Alexander Lyman Holley (1832 - 1882) James B. Eads "RR Bridge Innovator" (1820 - 1889) | Carnegie, an innovator, sees the market for steel rails. Holley, the first consulting engineer, designs Carnegie's steel plant which uses the Bessemer process. Frick, a coke supplier, becomes Carnegie's partner. Eads designs the first steel bridge. | Cast iron, wrought iron and steel: demonstration of material properties: brittleness. | US Steel We live in a steel world. If steel was removed, what would be left? Carnegie's philanthropy. | Iron ore is tranformed into steel. Change to higher strength and greater reliability with reasonable cost. Creation of new buildings, bridges and machines. Strain is transformed to stress through Hooke's law. | Carnegie obtains experience in many industries, and takes business practices of RR (on frequenct accounting) to steel industry. Holley, the first consulting engineer, is the best designer of steel plants. The Thompson plant is a huge, integrated plant | Eads bridge controversy: - Eads vs. Army Corps of Engineers. - Competition between St. Louis and Chicago. | Private profits and public environment (i.e. Pittsburgh). Labor disputes such as the Homestead Strike. Skyscrapers and new cities. | Accounting practices and cutting prices to eliminate competitors. Reinvestment in company avoids borrowing. Carnegie pays executives low salaries, but gives them a piece of the company. Carnegie, Morgan and Schwab form US Steel. | Pittsburgh: the industrial city When carbon is not entirely burned, soot (carbon) is released into the atmosphere. Impurities also lead to sulfur compounds (acid rain). Carbon dioxide is always released from the reaction. | Yield point of ordinary steel is 40 ksi. Breaking strength is 60 ksi. Modulus of elasticity (Young's modulus) is 29,000 ksi. | Processing or iron ore: major ingredients are coke, iron ore, oxygen and limestone. Waste products are slag (calcium sulfide) and carbon dioxide. | Pig Iron: 3-4.5% C Steel: <2% C Progression: Cast Iron is brittle. Wrought Iron is ductile. Steel is stronger, more reliable, and as ductile as wrought iron. | Xs = unknown number of molecules C = carbon S = sulfur (impurities) O2 = oxygen Fe203 = iron ore CaCO3 = calcium carbonate (limestone) Fe = iron CaS = slag (waste) CO2 = carbon dioxide f = stress e = strain E = Young's modulus | The Eads' Bridge, The Brooklyn Bridge: both made from Carnegie's steel. Joseph Stella - New York Interpreted: The Bridge | The Morgan Library The Frick House The Carnegie Libraries Pension Plans for Universities | The Long Span For bridges a stronger material allows for a lighter load qL: since f increases A must decrease A = H/f This leads to a lower force H = (qL)(L/8d) Alternatively, the new material allows for a longer span L. | ||
| November 5 Dominant Oil Company Processes: Hydrocarbons and Rubber Machines: Automobile | Edwin L. Drake (1819 - 1880) John D. Rockefeller (1839 - ) Fräesch ( ) Burton ( ) Goodyear ( ) Harvey Firestone ( ) | Drake creates the first oil well in 1859. Rockefeller amasses an industry with Standard Oil and controls 90% of industry (1883). Fräesch removes sulphur from 'skunk oil' for kerosene. Burton: batch process for extracting gasoline from crude oil. | Oil industry is still world dominant. What would happen without oil? Bayway refinery - Exxon Rockefeller - philanthropy | Combustion: transformation of hydrocarbons to pressure (force), and water, carbon dioxide and other waste gases. Refining of petroleum into gasoline, kerosene and myriad of products. From distilling to cracking. | Rockefeller understood need for control: well, pipes, refinery. He brought order by collecting small companies into conglomerate Standard Oil. He took calculated risks, e.g. purchased sulphur laden oil fields without solution (later solved by Fräesch). | In 1911, the supreme court rules that monopolies violate the Sherman Trust Law. Standard Oil is broken up. | Kerosene needed for light. Kerosene allows for personal lighting. Kerosene replaced whale oil. | Rockefeller makes fortune in producing kerosene for lighting. Oil - Kerosene lighting replaced by electric lighting, rise of the car and plane creates need for gasoline. Rubber - car tires. | Exxon Valdez: high capacity pipelines and their hazards. Pipelines: - Rockefeller (for control) - Alaskan (remote wells) f = stress P = pressure r = pipe radius h = pipe thickness w = weight density H = head | Range of energy content: 12,000 to 20,000 BTU/lb kerosene - gasoline - diesel - | Refining oil by distillation. Fräesch process for sulphurous oil. Burton process for gasoline output. Dubbs process for continuous production. | Crude oil obtained by wells: first well at Titusville, PA - 1859. Gasoline has high vapor pressure (volatile) Plastics Synthetic rubber | Cracking: large hydrocarbons are broken into smaller ones by controlling pressure and heat. Example shows alkane broken into octane, decane, eth---. Yield of gasoline increased to 40% by Burton process of cracking. | Oil is 'liquid gold' | Rockefeller is devout baptist. Gives money before fortune made. Rockefeller and Carnegie race to give away most money (Carnegie wins). Rockefeller is major benefactor to - U of Chicago - Rockefeller U - Rockefeller Center - Rockefeller Foundation | Striking it rich x gallons of oil = one pound of gold | |||
| November 10 Processes: Cement and Reinforced Concrete Structures: Bridges | Aspdin ( ) Hennebique ( ) Maillart ( ) Freyssinet ( ) | Aspen invents Portland cement in 1824. Hennebique develops reinforced concrete designs (1892). Maillart is a structural artist using the new material of reinforced concrete (e.g. Tavanassa, 1905) Freyssinet invents prestressed concrete (1928). | Cooling towers, dams, bridges and buildings. Contrast to steel and oil industries: no major industry for cement production is formed: cement components are universally available. | Transformation from liquid to solid rock. From stone to concrete. From unrelated pieces to integrated (monoliths). | Concrete is composed of portland cement, sand, gravel and water. New forms are possible with reinforced concrete because it can assume any shape and is able to take both compression and tension. | Patents did not play much of a role because - materials are locally available - Portland cement is not so expensive or difficult to produce. | Concrete is a material for public works, but not desirable for architecture - personal housing except for foundations. | Concrete is almost always available locally: material is used directly at the construction site, manufacturing is part of the construction process. Contrasts with steel which is fabricated off-site. Competes directly with steel. | Concrete allows for large-scale public works, but cement production produces 5-20% of world's carbon dioxide. With large scale public works comes the potential of major failures: dams, cooling towers and thin shells. | Composite of two materials. Concrete is strong in compression (3,000 psi), but weak in tension (300 psi). Steel bars are strong in tension (30,000 psi) but will buckle in compression. Composite material is strong in both tension and compression. | Curing of concrete: exothermic and irreversible chemical reaction. (concrete cures under water) Concrete mix is a balance between strength (low water content) and workability (high water content). | Thermal properties of steel and concrete coincide. Weight density of water = 62.4, concrete = 150, steel = 490 in lbs / ft3 Concrete is relatively impervious to environment in comparison to steel. | Portland Cement Lime and clay are heated to produce portland cement. Adding water to the cement (hydration) sets (cures) the cement. Cement is the binding agent used in concrete. Concrete also contains sand and gravel. | Museum of Modern Art: Robert Maillart | Hyperbolic Cooling Towers Form of thin shells H = qL2/8d | ||||
| November 12 The First Regional Multi-State Political Instrument The Port Authority Structures: Bridges The George Washington Bridge | Gustave Lindenthal (1850 - 1935) Julius H. Cohen ( ) George Silzer ( ) Othmar Ammann (1879 - 1964?) | Lindenthal forms private company to build Hudson River Bridge. Cohen has idea to make bi-state agency. Governor Silzer (NJ) works with Ammann to get GW bridge accepted by Republican Bergen county. Ammann is hired by Port Authority to build GW. | The Port Authority The George Washington Bridge (plus 6 major NYC bridges) A new class of bridges at 3500 ft - double the span of previous bridges. | The Port Authority is able to transform two states: NY and NJ. Rural to suburban Short span to long span Heavy to light | The Port Authority is created to deal with the freight bottle neck at the Hudson River. Ammann realizes that a bridge accross the Hudson will be needed for automobile traffic and not RR traffic. Ammann builds the GW and heads Authority. | The first multi-state political instrument is formed: the Port Authority of NY and NJ. The Port Authority reports directly to the governors of NY and NJ. | Crossing the Hudson for automobiles. Transformation of communities. | For sake of economy the design live load is reduced. | Long Span Bridge Maximum loading is improbable: live load, q, is reduced allowing for an economic structure. C and K are reduction factors for number of lanes (n) and length of roadway (L), respectively. qmax is the maximum possible loading imaginable. | Loads - dead weight, traffic weight and wind forces. Failure of the Tacoma Narrows bridge because of problems with shape and stiffness, and thin deck tossed by the wind made catastrophic by resonance. Open box has poor torsional stiffness. | High strength steel for cables (yield at 150 ksi, break at 220 ksi) Alloy steel for ... | V = Vertical component of axial force H = Horizontal component of axial force T = Total axial force at tower/support q = Angle of cable f = stress (force per area) A = cross-sectional area | M. B. White - Photographer for LIFE Magazine | William Carlos Williams - Poet | Elegant Form: GW Bridge The L/d ratio indicates a flat parabolic cable. The short side spans accentuate the long main span. The strange towers were intended to be covered with a stone facade. | ||||
| November 17 The First Federal Multi-State Agency Networks: Tennessee Valley Water Shed T. V. A. Power Grid: Paradise Power Plant Structures: Dams Norris Dam & Wilson Dam | George Norris (1861 - 1944) Arthur E. Morgan ( ) David E. Lilienthal ( ) F.D. Roosevelt | Senator Norris is responsible for starting the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA). Morgan, a civil engineer, heads the TVA in 1933 with a vision of local development. Lilienthal, a lawyer, takes over and creates a power agency. | The dams, power plants, and experimental stations are still used; the river is navigable. | Transformation of a depressed region requires a new political instrument because of the many states involved. Agency for social development to agency focused on selling power. | The possible sale of the Wilson Dam stimulates congress to create the TVA. This agency has high quality technical personnel, is removed from local politics, and has a local bureaucracy. | Norris proposes the TVA, which is established by Roosevelt. The stimulus is nitrates for war: hydroelectric power is needed in nitrate plants to produce munitions. | Goals of the TVA: -navigation and floods -reforestation and land use -agriculture and industry -national defense and nitrates Rural electrification. Morgan sees TVA for restructuring community life. Lilienthal sees great way to produce power cheaply. | Selling power cheaply to the masses. This also undercuts local industry. | New Deal: organizing the unemployed to restructure nature. Paradise plant - economics, low cost/kwh of electricity because of high efficiency (E). | Hydroelectric power. Steam turbines. | Nitrates for munitions and later for fertilizer. (Wilson Dam) | Massive Hydroelectric Power Hp = horsepower Q = flow (cfs) w = weight density (lbs/ft3) H = head (ft) | Thomas Cole: Titan's Goblet (1833) - Man taming nature Avant Garde House in the 30's - TVA prefabricated homes. | Jordy Creese | Racoon Mountain's Artificial Lake: symbolic of Titan's Goblet and restructuring nature. At slack (low power use) water is pumped up to the lake. This stored energy is then used during peak demand. | ||||
| November 19 The First Multi-State River Compact Structures: Dams The Hoover Dam Networks: Water and Power for Los Angelos | Arthur Powell Davis (1861 - 1933) Frank T. Crowe ( ) William Mulholland (1855 - 1935) | Davis heads the US Reclamation Service in 1902. Crowe is general superintendant in 1924 and builds Hoover in 1930. Mulholland is chief engineer of water department in LA. | Gravity dam demo: overturning of a dam. | Bureau of Reclamation The Hoover Dam | Transforming desert to agriculture. Creation of a city: LA | Long distance power and water. | Hoover is secretary of commerce under Harding - negotiates Colorado River Compact. | Imperial Valley Flood 1905 - 1907 caused by amateur canal building. | Water is a valuable resource: allows for agriculture to develop. | The improbable metropolis: Hoover Dam allows LA to develop. The power lost in the lines (Ps) depends on the current (I) squared and the resistance (Rs). The stress in a pipe depends on the pressure (P), radius (r) and thickness (h). | Behavior of Hoover: arch dam or gravity dam. | Curing of concrete produces heat which must be dealt with for large dams. | Concrete. | Triangular Concrete Gravity Dam SF = safety factor Mo = overturning moment Mr = resisting moment F = equivalent force of water pressure P = water wt density H = head B = base V = vertical weight w = concrete wt density | Transformation of desert to agriculture: reclamation. Dam is a visual icon of the thirtees. | Joan Didion, essayist | Triangular Shape of Gravity Dam | ||
| November 24 Hydro-Electric Power Allows for Industrialization Networks: Navigation of the Columbia River Bonneville Power Authority Structures: Dams John Day Processes: Smelting of Aluminum | Major Henry Robert Roosevelt Whipple Charles Martin Hall | Robert's rules, report to congress on Columbia, Roosevelt's new deal, Whipple writes control plan for navigation, flooding/power and irrigation. Hall invents process for smelting aluminum ore. | The Dams: Highest Lift for navigation. Boeing Corporation centered around hydro-power. | From flooded to industrially developed. Rapids to navigation From water and flow to power Aluminum: from expensive to affordable | Restructuring the Pacific Northwest: Boeing and Alcoa thrive near a power source for making aluminum. The mass produced per mole of electrons (M) equals the molar mass (mm) divided by the number of electrons consumed per formula unit (n). | Columbia River has greatest power (drop times flow) of any river. | Hall process for aluminum: electrolysis. Disassociation of aluminum from oxygen. | Aluminum: light, strong and affordable. | |||||||||||
| November 26 Machines: Microchips | C. Marcus Olson Frederick Seitz Shockley, Brattain, and Bardeen Robert Noyce ( ) Jack St. Clair Kilby ( ) | Olson - purification of Silicon (1940) Seitz - Diodes Shockley, Brattain, and Bardeen - transistor for telephone switching (1948) Noyce - integrated circuit (1959) Kilby - monolithic idea -- silicon as transistor, resistor, capacitor, conductor. | Transistor switch Vacuum tube switch Vacuum diode Semi-conductor diode | Moore's Law Modern microchips Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) | From big to small to tiny. | Monolithic idea - optimizing component parts would not lead to the microchip, since, for example, silicon is a poor resistor. Chip is small, cheap, mass produceable, and versatile. Seitz recognizes the usefulness of pure silicon for diodes. | Electronic revolution. | Voltage controlled valve - tube. Current controlled valve - transistor. | Silicon purification. Doped silicon is semi-conductor. | Silicon | Tokyo City Hall as microchip. | Smaller and smaller | |||||||
| December 1 Silicon Valley | Leland Stanford Harris Ryan Frederick E. Terman (1900 - 1982) Hewlett, and Packard | Stanford - creates a university (1890) with vision of engineering working with local region. Ryan - High voltage lab (1905) Terman - Ryan's student works with local industry (1927): creates silicon valley Hewlett, Packard - Terman's students -- HP | Model for several university - industry research parks. | Valley transformed from fruit orchards to electronic industry. | Stanford / Terman's vision of university, industry and governement cooperation. Hewlett and Packard, starting in their garage, establish HP, silicon valley's first success story. | End of WW II and Cold War: pump money into Silicon Valley. | Silicon Valley: Stanford's vision realized: university - industry - government partnership. | Radar | |||||||||||
| December 3 Machines: The Computer | George Boole (1815 - 1864) Alan Turing (1912 - 1954) John Von Neumann (1903 - 1957) Vannevar Bush (1890 - 1974) T. J. Watson, Jr. ( ) S. Jobs ( ) | Boole - Boolean algebra. Turing - invents Turing machine -- general purpose programmable computer (1937). Von Neumann - first draft of EDVAC (1944) -- first definition of modern computer. Watson, Jr. - Computer industry entrepeneur | Combinatorial logic. Flip-flop Register Stack | Personal computer Internet | From analog to digital Mechanical to electronic (tube) to electronic (transistors) | Von Neumann makes use of the idea of a stored program. Watson grows computer industry through applications to business (IBM). Jobs, inspired by Ford, has the vision of providing a computer for the masses. | Patent challenge by Mauchley and Ekert - fails. | US is dominant in electronics manufacturing. | Creation of new industry. An n-bit address specifies how many memory (M) elements. | Bit - memory cell flip-flop. Sequencer or clock. Pixelated, but distortionless, copy. | Si : silicon GaAs : germanium | "Toy Story," computer animation ISI building as punched card, Venturi - architect. | "Soul of a New Machine" | ||||||
| December 8 Networks: Fiber Optics Machines: The Laser | Total internal reflection. | ||||||||||||||||||
| December 10 Review | |||||||||||||||||||
Last Update: 9/15/97
Name: MAE
